End Notes for The Youngest Mountain Man
Authors Comments, Historical Events and References
The original manuscript contained these End Notes, but the publisher
suggested omitting them. In case they may be helpful to teachers, and
parents I’m making them available here at no cost to you.
Many people, events, and activities in The Youngest Mountain Man are true.
These endnotes will help answer questions, and will provide factual
information if readers want to know more about unfamiliar words or phrases
in the story. These entrees are in chronological order as they appear in the
book.
Disclaimer—In today’s world I refer to my friends from the tribes (I’m part
Cherokee) as Native American, but because this story is set in the early
1800’s, I refer to the “red men” in the story, and in the Teacher’s Guide,
in terms used at the time. No offense is meant by the use of the words
“Indian, squaw, or other derogatory terms (by today’s standards) that may be
included. However, some of the slang terms in the story were intentionally
included to point out, and emphasize the prejudice of the time.
Capture by Indians
Although it’s politically incorrect to say so today, some Indians killed,
tortured, and kept prisoners as slaves. The women were often the ones who
tortured captives. The most savage tribes “entertained” themselves by seeing
how brave a captive could be while he was tortured to death. “He died well”
meant a person didn’t scream for mercy. During battle many frontiersmen
saved the last shot for themselves, and taught their wives and children to
do the same, rather than risk torture and death at the hands of the Indians.
Not having been exposed to Christianity, Indians had no concept of kindness
or “charity” as we know the terms. Many were taught to enjoy inflicting
pain, and were masters of the art. Staking a victim in the sun with eyelids
held open by sticks to cause blindness is an example. Victims were sometimes
staked over ant hills and left. Many had their feet held to the fire,
literally, hence the term. Others became targets for archery practice. These
are mild examples. Pioneers feared Indians for good reason. Daniel Boone
wrote in 1787, “…four of the prisoners…, were ordered to be killed in a most
barbarous manner by the young warriors, in order to train them up to
cruelty.” Daniel Boone’s autobiography edited by John Filson, Discovery,
Settlement, and Present State of Kentucky.
Scalping
“The brutal practice of cutting a 3” to 4” diameter circle in the top of the
head of a dead, (sometimes living) victim, and removing a round section of
the scalp was practiced by Indians in the east before white men ever came to
America. Scalps were battle trophies. They were tanned, or dried, and were
used to adorn lances, battle clubs and shields. Later the French paid the
Herons for colonial scalps, and the British began to offer a bounty on
French scalps to the Algonquians in the French and Indian war. Later, on the
frontier, some traders purchased scalps for sale in England where
aristocrats displayed them in their parlors as conversation pieces from the
“American Frontier” much as shrunken heads were displayed in England after
the discovery of “head hunters” in Africa. One Indian scalp sold for as much
as a month’s wages.
There have been several instances of pioneers who were knocked unconscious,
scalped, but who recovered, except for a bald scar.
Unfortunately, some unscrupulous white men on the frontier also took Indian
scalps. Some, like “liver eating Johnson” did so in retaliation for the
massacres of their wives and children. I know of no recorded incidence where
a white man scalped another white man.
Mountain Man’s way
Trappers and mountain men behaved in seemingly contradictory ways. While
they could be cool and standoffish to newcomers (pilgrims, greenhorns) who
had not earned their respect by surviving in the mountains, and standing
firm under fire, they were quick and courageous to help a fallen comrade, or
rescue one of their own. The difference was that they trusted their lives to
their friends, and anyone of untried mettle could pose a risk. A mountain
man never asked for help, “pulled his own weight,” and usually did things
for himself, not depending on others. If help was offered, he might accept.
But to him another man’s problems were his own, especially if he was making
a foolish or inexperienced mistake, without listening to those who could
offer experienced advice.
Mountain men had the most respect for one who spoke little, did his share
around camp, didn’t ask questions, and could be counted on in emergencies.
The friendships forged during times of danger and shared hardship turned
into unbreakable loyalty among the survivors. A man’s reputation preceded
him, and if you had a good reputation it was like a calling card. You were
welcomed even if you were a stranger, or respected by enemies.
Mountain men were “fiercely independent” and self-sufficient. Their usual
equipment (everything they had to live for a year) consisted of what they
could carry on one horse.
“A trapper’s equipment in such cases is generally one animal upon which is
placed one or two epishemores, (rectangles of buffalo robe which served as
padding under the saddle, and as mattresses to sleep on), a riding saddle
and bridle, a sack containing six beaver traps, a blanket with an extra pair
of moccasins, his powder horn and bullet pouch, with a belt to which is
attached a butcher knife, a wooden box containing bait for beaver, a tobacco
sack with a pipe and implements for making fire, with sometimes a hatchet
fastened to the pommel of the saddle. His personal dress is a flannel or
cotton shirt (if he is fortunate enough to obtain one, if not antelope skin
answers the purpose of over and undershirt), a pair of leather breeches with
blanket or smoked buffalo skin leggings, a coat made of blanket or buffalo
robe, a hat or cap of wool, buffalo or otter skin, his hose (socks) are
pieces of blanket wrapped around his feet, which are covered with a pair of
moccasins made of dressed deer, elk, or buffalo skins, with his long hair
falling loosely over his shoulders, completes his uniform. He then mounts
and places his rifle before him on his saddle.” Osborne Russell, Voices From
the Wilderness, edited by Thomas Froncek, p. 321.
Christian burial
Plains Indian tribes buried their dead on scaffolds above the earth. In
“Christian” burial bodies were buried underground with some sort of service
that included prayer or Bible reading. Because their bodies could not be
found, or there was no time, some pioneers were not buried, or given any
kind of marker. Their bones were often seen along the trails. To keep
Indians from digging up bodies and desecrating them, or wolves from finding
them, it was a common practice to bury dead in front of a wagon train, and
then drive all the wagons and livestock over the graves to leave no trace.
This necessary, but unfortunate, practice makes it impossible for
researchers to document the locations of many pioneer graves.
Rendezvous
In the early 1800’s trappers took their own furs to St. Louis to be shipped
down the Mississippi, but this wasted a lot of time. When the fur trade
began in earnest, traders journeyed to the west once a year to resupply the
men and collect their furs. The rendezvous, a French word for “meeting” was
usually held in a place determined by the traders the year before. Knowing
the site, trappers would plan to arrive there and camp during the months of
July and August, awaiting the arrival of the supply trains. Most rendezvous
were held in what is not Wyoming, around the Green River. They began in 1825
at Henry’s Fork of the Green River, and continued until 1840 when the last
sad rendezvous was held on the upper Green. Since the spring “hunt” was
finished, all the mountain men had to do was hunt for food and camp waiting
for the supply train to arrive. When it did, the rendezvous began, with the
best trading going to those who were there first, and continued until the
supplies were gone, usually a week or two. Here mountain man Osborne
Russell’s description in his own words.
“Joy now beamed in every countenance. Some received letters from friends and relations; some received the public papers and news of the day; others consoled themselves with the idea of getting a new blanket, a cotton shirt, or a few pints of coffee and sugar to sweeten it just by way of a treat, gratis, that is to say by paying 2,000% on the first cost by way of communication. For instance, sugar $2.00 per pint, coffee the same, blankets $20.00 each, tobacco $2.00 per pound, alcohol $4.00 per pint, and common cotton shirts $5.00 each, etc. And in return paid $4.00 or $5.00 per pound for beaver. In a few days the bustle began to subside. The furs were done up in packs ready for transportation to the States and parties were formed for hunting the ensuing year. Osborne Russell, Voices From the Wilderness, edited by Thomas Froncek. p. 320
The rendezvous was open to all who wanted to trade, Indians and whites
alike. The men whiled away their time playing cards, and Indian games of
chance, horse racing, having knife throwing, and tomahawk throwing, and
shooting contests. At night around the fires they competed in telling the
tallest tales, in dancing if anyone had a fiddle, and maybe a Jew’s harp.
Indians depended on trading their furs at the rendezvous and getting much
needed metal goods like knives, needles, beads, fishhooks etc. They traded
readymade moccasins, and buckskins to the trappers. Even today, no tanning
process can duplicate the softness and comfort of “Indian tanned”, or brain
tanned buckskin. For those trappers who married Indian women, the rendezvous
provided an opportunity to dress a spouse in the finest available clothing.
Indian women who married trappers were held in high esteem by the people in
their villages, because of their finery, and the comforts they were provided
by the white man’s goods.
Russell Green River
Until 1834 most mountain men’s knives were either imported from England, or
hand forged by local blacksmiths from files. But when John Russell adapted
mass productions techniques to his cutlery manufacturing at Greenfield,
Massachusetts, on the Green River he was able to produce fine quality
kitchen and carving knives that could compete with those imported from
Sheffield, England. They looked like kitchen butcher knives we use today; in
fact the company is still producing knives under the “Green River” logo.
Originally they sold wholesale for $3.50 per dozen. Trappers paid an
inflated $1.50 each at trading posts, and rendezvous.
The “Green River” mark was stamped on the blade about an inch from the front
of the handle. The term, “Up to Green River” meant anything done all the
way, or well, like a knife stuck in something until only the handle was
showing.
Mountain men altered all their Green River knives as soon as they were
purchased. As bought they were sharpened on both sides of the cutting edge,
but to prevent them from accidentally cutting the precious beaver skins,
trappers honed the cutting edge completely off on flat whet stones, leaving
the knife with a square edge, then they sharpened only one side, so the
unsharpened side could lay flat against the animal’s carcass and not cut the
skin.
The “butcher” mentioned by mountain men was exactly that, a big butcher
knife housed in a sheath made of rawhide, or tanned leather held together
with many brass rivets. Indian type “pouch” sheaths were preferred in which
the knife was completely covered by the ample sheath, which was often
decorated with beads or dyed porcupine quills.
Beaver family life
A beaver family consisted of a “boar”, or male, a female and almost always
two kittens, or “kits”. Beavers dammed streams to create ponds where they
constructed their dome shaped houses of limbs and mud. Entrances to their
“lodges” or houses were underwater where two tunnels came up in the middle
of the earth floors above water level. Young beavers stayed with the family
until they were three years old, when they struck off on their own.
Mountain men’s journals tell how the female beaver will kill some of each
year’s litter so that only one male and female kit is left.
Trappers could select which beaver they would attract to their traps by
using special scents called “castorium” produced in glands in the back of
each beaver. Whenever possible kits and females were left by early trappers
as “seed” to reproduce and replenish the population. Unfortunately, when the
trapping became a competition between fur companies and Indians, the beaver
were nearly wiped out. Nowadays, due to wise management by the wildlife
departments and money paid by legally licensed trappers today beaver are so
prolific they are a nuisance in some places where they destroy valuable
orchards, and landscape trees in suburban neighborhoods.
Possibles bag
The “possibles bag” contained everything needed to fire and care for a
muzzle loading rifle. It was made of soft leather with a flap over the front
to protect the contents. The strap was usually wide, (2 inches) for comfort.
The strap often contained a sheath for the patch knife, and short starter.
Inside the bag were separations for shot (lead balls), caps, a worm (for
pulling stuck bullets) a bullet mold, and patch cloth and caps (if a cap
lock) or extra flints (in the case of a flintlock). Usually a flint and
steel fire starter was also included. The powder horn, made of a cow horn
with a plug in the large end and a spout and plug in the narrow end, was
often hung from the strap of the possibles bag. The “Minutemen” of the
revolution, farmers who could be ready to fight at a moment’s notice, are
good examples of the importance of having all the necessary equipment in one
container. If a trapper had his rifle and his possibles bag he could
survive.
“Ole Thunder”
In the west a man’s life literally depended on a trustworthy rifle. “The
eastern Kentucky Rifle, used to such advantage against the British in the
revolution, wasn’t powerful enough for grizzly bears and elk of the west, so
when Lewis and Clark returned to Washington, one thing they did was talk to
German gunsmiths about the needs in the west. The result was the “plains
rifle,” made by several individuals, including Jacob Hawken in St. Louis.
The plains rifle had a heavy octagonal barrel, shorter than a Kentucky Rifle
so it could be used on horseback that shot a ball of 50 to 61 caliber,
actually the size of a marble or larger.
It was tradition to name one’s rifle. Davy Crockett’s rifle was named “Old
Betsy”. Rifles of this quality cost a year’s salary, and were so dear to the
trapper that, if captured, he would find a way to escape, attack his
captors, and retrieve his favored rifle. Many were named after
characteristics of their shooting. “Old High Shot”. Usually they were named
for a feat of accomplishment. “Old Bar Buster”,
Powder horn
Natural horn was one of the best materials for making a container for black
powder, (gunpowder). Because any spark could ignite the powder there could
be no metal parts on a powder container except brass or silver which does
not spark. Natural cow horn, buffalo horn, and sheep horn was used to make
water proof containers for gunpowder. A horn, made of cutin (the same
material your finger nails are made of), was scraped until the walls were
thin enough to let light through. This reduced weight and allowed the user
to hold the horn up to the light to see how much gunpowder was inside. The
horn was fitted with a stopper on the large end with a knob for attaching a
shoulder strap, and a spout on the small end with a groove for the other end
of the shoulder strap, and a plug, often shaped like a fiddle tuning key to
seal water out. Horns of white cow horn were especially valued because
designs could be scratched in their surfaces in technique sailors called
scrimshaw, (scratching designs in ivory like whale’s teeth.) Maps, names,
and designs were often scrimshawed on the sides of powder horns. Antique
powder horns in good condition are worth hundreds, even thousands of dollars
today as collectibles. Some artists still make powder horns today, to sell
to hobbyists who shoot black powder rifles in reenactment clubs. Many
hobbyists make their own powder horns as well.
Muzzleloader
Before the invention of cartridges, all firearms were loaded from the end of
the barrel, or “muzzle,” so they were called “muzzleloaders.” There was an
exact ritual that was followed in order to insure that the rifle would fire.
First, gunpowder was measured from a powder horn into a powder measure made
of hollowed out deer antler or brass. The amount used was the result of
careful testing to see which load would shoot the most accurately. Gunpowder
was never poured directly into the barrel of a rifle from the powder horn,
because of the danger of an explosion. After the powder was measured it was
carefully poured down the barrel, then the barrel was shaken or bumped from
the side to settle the powder. Next a piece of pillow ticking, (striped
pillow cloth, much like denim), was lubricated with animal grease, or spit
on the bottom side, then placed over the muzzle hole of the barrel. A ball
was then placed in the center of the patch material and was pushed down into
the barrel until it was just below the surface. At that time a patch knife
was used to trip the cloth off level with the muzzle of the rifle. Now the
ball was pushed the rest of the way down the barrel with a ramrod.
To shoot a percussion rifle the hammer on the side of the lock was pulled
back exposing the nipple, (a hollow steel screw that was threaded into the
chamber where the gunpowder was packed.) A cap, (small copper plated steel
cup filled with explosive powder) was placed on the nipple and when the
trigger was pulled the hammer fell on the cap, causing it to explode. The
flash went down the hole in the nipple to the gunpowder which exploded,
sending the ball out the muzzle. This took a little time and sometimes the
game was able to move before the ball got out the end of the barrel.
Sometimes a muzzleloader didn’t shoot when you pulled the trigger. This
situation was called a “misfire” because the gunpowder didn’t ignite.
Usually another cap could be put on the nipple and the rifle would fire the
second time. Another, more dangerous accident was called a “hang fire.” In
this case the cap exploded, and the gunpowder was in the process of burning,
but it didn’t shoot the bullet out the end of the barrel right away. The
rifle had to be pointed in a safe direction, and sometimes minutes later it
would finally fire. If the mountain man tried to extract the bullet too soon
he might be shot in the face. The safest way to correct the problem was to
disassemble the rifle and submerge it in water to be sure the powder was
out, then remove the ball and clean the gun.
Some of the instances of bears mauling mountain men happened with their
rifles misfired, and they couldn’t get them to work before the bear caught
them. You only got one shot, if it worked at all.
Beavers’ food
Beavers are America’s largest rodents. They are herbivores, eating plant
roots, tree bark, and grasses. Beaver’s favorite food is cottonwood bark,
birch bark, willow bark, or alder bark. They chew down large trees in order
to cut off the limbs for food and dam construction. Beavers chew every bit
of bark off a stick by chewing around it much like we eat corn on the cob.
In winter they eat sticks they have saved in the bottom of their ponds.
Beavers have webbed hind feet with double toe nails on the next to outside
toe which serve as tooth picks. They remove wood chips from their teeth with
these.
Felt
Felt is a non-woven fabric made of animal fur. The very finest felt is made
of beaver under fur. Wool is also used in making felt. The process,
discovered in the 1400’s is complex. After shaving the under fur from a
beaver hide it is laid out on a metal cone where it is soaked in hot water
which causes the fibers to shrink together, intertwining until they form a
mat of felt. Then when the felt mat is placed over a form and is again
sprayed with boiling water the mat shrinks even more. Finally the felt is
placed over a hat form and is heated again until it is shaped like a hat. Then
it is stiffened by adding shellac, is sanded smooth with sandpaper, and has
a lining and band added to become a finished hat.
Hugh Glass
The story of Hugh Glass is one of the most famous stories that illustrate
the tenacity for life exhibited by mountain men. In 1823 Glass, traveling
with Major Andrew Henry, was attacked by a grizzly bear when his rifle
misfired. The female, more vicious because she protected two cubs, “seized
him, tore the flesh from the lower part of the body, & from the lower
limbs—He also had his neck shockingly torn, even to the degree that an
aperture appeared to have been made in the windpipe, & his breath to exude
at the side of his neck . . . Blood flowed freely, but fortunately no bone
was broken--& his hands and arms were not disabled.” From “The Chronicles of
George C. Yount,” Charles L. Camp, ed., California Historical Society
Quarterly, vol 2 (San Francisco:1923), pp. 26-33.
His companions came to his rescue and removed the bear, or killed it
depending on who you read, and then ministered to him for days, finally
giving him up for certain death. The main body moved on and left a man and
boy to bury Glass when he expired. But Glass hung on to life. After he
continued to live, though he could not speak or move, they decided to leave
him for dead. Taking his rifle, cooking pot and knife they went to join the
rest of the group. Thus began one of the most extraordinary stories of
survival the mountains have known. Glass crawled on his hand and feet 200
miles to Fort Kiowa where his wounds were cared for and he lived several
more years and had other harrowing adventures. Vestal, Stanley, Mountain Men
(Boston, 1937), pp. 46-61:cf. Alter, 25-35.
Grizzlies
Grizzly bears were unknown to most Americans until Lewis and Clark’s Corps
of Discovery encountered them on the way to the Pacific Ocean. Being
equipped to deal with animals the size of deer and black bear Lewis and
Clark were not prepared for anything as ferocious as a grizzly bear. Though
Indians warned Lewis of the bear’s power and the difficulty in killing one
he discounted their warnings. Then on May 5, 1824, “Drouillard (one of the
group) killed a grizzly that Lewis described as, “a most tremendous looking
animal, and extremely hard to kill notwithstanding he had five balls through
his lungs and five others in various parts he swam more than half the
distance across a river to the sandbar & it was at least twenty minutes
before he died: (he) made the most tremendous roaring from the moment he was
shot.” Ambrose, Stephen E., Undaunted Courage, Simon & Schuster, 1996, p.
219.
Zenas Leonard, while traveling with Captain Bonneville in 1835 near the Big
Horn River in the Wind River Range of what is now Wyoming witnessed a
grizzly attack a trapper who attempted to climb a tree to escape it. The
bear “caught him by the leg, and tore the tendon of his thigh in a most
shocking manner. Before we could get to his aid the bear made off and
finally escaped. Here we encamped and remained until he died. Adventures of
a Mountain Man: The Narrative of Zenas Leonard, Leonard, Zenas, R.R.
Donneley & Sons Company, the Lakeside Press, Philadelphia, ă Leonard, Zenas
1837.
Many mountain men were killed by grizzlies whose stories were never told.
Tall tales
The “tall tale” is a type of story that originated in American mountain
country which is characterized by exaggeration. Mountain men competed in
telling the greatest “whopper” at rendezvous and around campfires until it
became an art form. Most tall tales began with phrases like, “That reminds
me of the time when. . . “. Tall tales were also called, “big lies.”
It is interesting that many tall tales were based on fact. When mountain man
Joe Meek told of petrified forests with petrified trees, in which sat
petrified birds singing petrified songs, he was telling the truth about the
petrified trees. Petrified forests can be found in Wyoming, but the most
famous is Petrified Forest National Park in northern Arizona. “Old Gabe,” or
mountain man Jim Bridger once told of a stream where both boiling hot and
ice cold water flowed. He said you could catch a trout there and by the time
you got it landed it would be cooked and you could eat it. He was scoffed at
as a liar by city people, but such a stream exists in Yellowstone National
Park, where boiling geyser water flows above snow melt.
Tall tales usually tell of an event that was the most, or worst, or biggest,
etc. I’m reminded of the winter of ’34 in the Blue Mountains. That was the
coldest winter I ever saw. It was so cold all the words froze as soon as you
said them. Quietest winter ever. But boy was it a noisy spring when all
those words thawed out at once.
Cougar
Cougars, also called mountain lions, panthers, and catamounts, are the
largest members of the cat family that live in America. An adult cougar may
be tawny, (yellow brown), fawn gray, or reddish brown. The tip of the tail
is black. Sometimes a cougar is solid black. The heaviest mountain lion
weighed 227 pounds.
A cougar’s scream is terrifying, even to those who have heard it before. It
sounds like the scream of a woman in great pain. Cougars also make a soft,
whistle-like call. They eat young and weak deer, elk, and sheep. Their
favorite means of attack is to spring from a tree onto their prey. Though
some say cougars are afraid of humans there are several documented instances
where they attacked mountain men. Within the last year there have been two
recorded attacks by cougars on residents of Oregon and Washington State.
Two poles
Mountain men used a device called a “travois,” pronounced (trav oy) they
learned from the Indians. The name comes from the French Canadian word
“travail” meaning hard work or toil. It consisted of two long poles crossed
at the small ends with cross limbs lashed across in the middle to make a
platform for the load. When the crossed ends were laid across a horse or dog
the travois was pulled along like a cart with no wheels. It transferred the
weight of a load to the side, and made it easier to drag something than
carry it on one’s shoulders.
Flint and steel fire making
A mountain man’s fire starting kit contained a piece of flint stone about
the size of a silver dollar, a piece of buckskin as big as his palm, an oval
or C shaped piece of wrought iron, and a bit of charred cloth.
To strike a fire he would hold the buckskin in his left hand with the flint
on top of it while he pinched the char cloth on top of the flint. With his
right hand he struck downward with the “steel”, actually a piece of iron to
make sparks. When a spark landed on the char cloth it would ignite the cloth
which glowed red. Quickly he would blow on the glowing cloth and put tinder,
shredded bark, next to it to ignite. Once a flame burst forth he would lower
it to the ground under slivers of wood shaving he had prepared like a tipi,
and continue blowing on it until a fire was going. An experienced hand could
strike a fire in less than a minute.
Even after matches were invented, many pioneers preferred to use flint and
steel for fire starting because they would still produce sparks even if wet.
Eating moccasin soles
When starving many mountain men were reduced to “eating their moccasins.” It
isn’t such an unusual idea when you realize that moccasin soles were made of
rawhide, the same source for soup stock today. By boiling the rawhide they
could get enough nutrition to stay alive a few more days, hopefully long
enough to get food. In one way rawhide moccasin soles were like bouillon
cubes in a survival kit.
Reading “sign”
Correctly reading “sign”, any clue that something had been in an area, was
essential to successful trapping, hunting, and self preservation. Sign could
include animal tracks, droppings, bits of hair, bent down grass, and
overturned leaves, chewed plant stems, even scent.
If a trapper saw chewed down alder trees by a stream he knew beaver were
around. If he saw droppings the size of a corn cob curled in a circle filled
with wild huckleberry seeds he knew a bear was around. If he saw a trail of
bent grass with no animal tracks he knew Indians were using that trail to
get water, or good.
If an animal was shot, but escaped, finding one drop of blood on a leaf
could lead the mountain man to the game, and mean the difference in
starving, or having food.
Sign language
Because of the many different languages spoken by tribes in the west a
universal sign language was developed by the Indians. Unlike signs the deaf
use, the Indian sign language depended on symbols for concepts and contained
no digital spelling. A motion like a sword being drawn could indicate
cavalry soldiers, two fingers forked astride the other hand indicated a
horse rider.
At one time mountain man Joe Meek entertained a council of Indians for an
hour without a word being spoken. There was no question that he was
understood because, to the amazement of inexperienced witnesses, the group
laughed simultaneously when a humorous point was made, and grew concerned
when the story became serious.
Indian sign language was more than just hand signals. The symbols were
connected by rhythmic body movements which made the performance more like a
dance of the upper body. Each phrase was motioned with the hands high in
front of the teller’s shoulders, and was connected to the next phrase with
smooth motions. At the end of a thought he would drop his hands about six
inches to accent the thought, much like a period in written language.
Many mountain men became proficient in sign language, and several Indian
languages.
Smoke signals
Without the benefit of radios and telegraph, the plains Indians communicated
great distances, (up to 50 miles) by using smoke signals. To do this a fire
was kindled, and smoky fuel, like green limbs, was used to produce smoke.
The column of smoke was then interrupted by placing a blanket over the fire
to make the smoke rise in a series of puffs. The pattern of puffs indicated
the meaning. Indians could communicate information far ahead of mounted
mountain men in this way. Because of this ability on the Indians’ part,
mountain men tried to stay out of sight whenever they traveled so as to not
be ambushed.
Prove his manhood
In Indian culture there were few ways a boy could prove his manhood. If he
accomplished certain feats of daring, he was entitled to tell his story
around the council fire and boast of his deeds, verified by witnesses who
saw the event. Then he was entitled to wear eagle feathers designating the
kind of honor they represented, much like medals were given for valor in
battle among those in the armed services of the U.S.
The only way an Indian boy could obtain wealth was to steal horses from
another tribe, or the whites. This was his calling, was encouraged, and was
his way of life. He had never been taught that stealing was wrong. He would
need horses to buy a wife when the time was right, so collecting his own
herd was important to his future if he wanted a wife.
Another way he could gain approval as a man was to touch an enemy in battle
without killing him. This was called counting coup, (coo), and was the
bravest thing a boy could do. Special staffs called coup sticks were carried
into battle for this purpose.
Another way to gain honor was to kill an enemy. Sometimes the first to touch
a dead enemy could also count coup, but not as much honor was bestowed for
“second coup.”
Taking scalps was a third way to earn honor. Not only did an enemy’s scalp
act as a trophy of war, proving he had killed his enemy, but they could also
be used to trade for goods provided by white traders.
Big fire
One of the mountain man’s survival techniques was to build a big, long, fire
before bedtime, then rake the ashes aside to make a new fire, cover the
ashes with fresh sand, and lay his bedding in the place where the fire was.
This gave him a warm bed all night, as the hot earth gave off its stored
heat. This was only done when the mountain men felt safe from discovery. The
usual precaution was to build a small fire with dry wood to avoid visible
smoke which could give away their location.
Thomas Fitzpatrick
Thomas Fitzpatrick, “White Hair, or Broken Hand” as the Indians called him
was an important figure in the fur trade. When the rocky Mountain Fur
Company collapsed in 1835, Fitzpatrick and his partners, Fontenelle, and
others took possession of Fort William, named after William Sublette, and
switched from being a trapper to becoming a trader and brigade leader. In
July, 1836 Fitzpatrick led 45 men and 20 carts of supplies to the rendezvous
at the Popo Agie. It was in 1832 that he was captured by the Gros Ventres,
his outfit was taken, and he escaped. He endured torture, escaped, and
survived naked in the desert three weeks subsisting on buffalo bones left by
wolves. He did make his way to the rendezvous where he was cared for, out of
his mind for days. His hair did turn white because of the ordeal, but he
lived to continue to be one of the prominent figures in the fur trade.
Chouinard
Joseph Chouiard was a real person. He was a huge man, of French-Canadian
descent who was in the party of Captain Drips at the rendezvous of 1835 at
the mouth of the Popo Agie River. He did challenge any man of any race or
nationality to fight him. Eventually, Kit Carson, who was only about 20 at
the time, had enough of the bully and accepted his challenge for the
Americans. Carson did shoot Chouinard in the arm, breaking it, which would
have been the end of his career as a trapper since it took two hands to set
a trap. This event enhanced Carson’s reputation among the mountain men.
Utley, Robert, A Life Wild and Perilous, Henry Holt and Company, New York,
1997, p. 163
Old Thunder
Because the rifles specially made by gunsmiths like Jake Hawken for mountain
men cost up to a year’s wages they were highly prized. In addition, they
saved many a man’s life from attacking Indians and bears. Because mountain
men depended on their rifles for their very lives they often named them, a
tradition that came from the eastern mountains. One of Davy Crockett’s
favorite rifles was named “Old Betsy”. Usually the name had something to do
with the performance, or history of the rifle. “Old Sure Shot” would have
been a very accurate rifle. “Corner Shooter,” might indicate that a mountain
man had used a mirror to shoot an enemy from behind a tree without exposing
himself to fire, like shooting around a corner.
Billinghurst rifle
About 1835 a Gunsmith named William Billinghurst began making a special
match rifle called a “turkey rifle” because the prize at many of the
shooting matches was a turkey. These rifles weighed 9 to 15 pounds, had
special match “peep” sights, and were suitable for shooting deer, bear, and
other big game. Billinghurst rifles were used mostly in the Midwest and
west. They were slow to load with their X shaped paper patches and long
conical bullets, but they were the most accurate rifles of the day. In fact,
they were more accurate than modern rifles today, and were shot at targets
500 to 1,000 yards away. During the civil war a confederate officer was shot
off his horse by a Union sniper at a measured distance of one mile with a
Billinghurst rifle.
Indians respected brave enemies
It is true that the Indians admired courage in their enemies. Often a brave
enemy was adopted into their tribe. Sometimes he would be freed, because of
his apparent disregard of pain and danger while being captured.
John Colter, veteran of the Lewis and Clark expedition, and one of the first
mountain men is an example. In 1808, after being the first white man to see
what is now Yellowstone Park, Colter was captured by hostile Blackfeet. His
companion, a man named Potts, attempted escape when surrounded by braves and
was instantly pierced with dozens of arrows. Because of Colter’s knowledge
of Blackfeet customs he showed no fear as he was stripped, and tied to a
pole to become a target for the young boy’s arrows. Because of his apparent
disregard of his enemies the chief asked him by signs if he could run.
Guessing their intent, he let them know that he was a poor runner. At that
the chief led him out on the prairie about 400 yards, took his moccasins and
motioned for him to run for his life. Colter being a swift runner soon
outdistanced his enemies, all but one who threw a spear and missed. Colter,
bleeding from the mouth from exertion, killed the warrior with his own
spear, and then ran some 6 miles barefoot through prickly pear cactus to a
river where he dived in, swam under water, and hid in a large drift of
floating logs. He was then able to swim downstream at night and survive 6
days on roots until reached Lisa’s fort. Voices From the Wilderness, Edited
by Thomas Froncek (from the journals and writings of the mountain men)
McGraw-Hill Book Company ă 1974 by Thomas Froncek p. 177
Sound of breaking glass
While the plains Indians flaked arrowheads, knives, and lance (spear) heads
of local stone like flint, and chert, the prized material was obsidian, or
volcanic glass. This material was obtained by trading with Indians in Oregon
where it was abundant around what is called “glass butte” today, in colors
ranging from solid black, black with red stripes, red-orange, translucent
gray with black stripes, even green. Obsidian flakes more precisely when
being worked, and give a more keen edge than other stone. Large flaked
obsidian blades, like a lance head, were extremely difficult to make, and
were extremely valuable to their owners. They were often hidden, and only
displayed on special occasions. To have a valuable lance head disintegrated
by an unknown assailant would have been utterly demoralizing to an Indian.
This would have been “bad medicine,” akin to our “bad karma” or a bad omen
today.
Stripping down to parley
The “parley” was bound in tradition. It could be simply a meeting with
friends to discuss a problem, or it could be a meeting between chosen
delegates from two warring tribes or groups. There were rules which were
strictly followed by both sides. Essentially a parley was an agreed upon
cease fire while the representatives sized up the opposition and offered
terms. Many battles were averted by paying ransom, leaving the area, or
bluffing the enemy about how strong your side was.
To insure the safety of the representatives, both approached the parley site
without clothes to insure that they would not kill the other representative.
This was an honorable meeting and there was no shame. Only a very brave man
would go unarmed to meet another. Both men respected that. Tradition decreed
that both representatives got back safely to their sides before any shooting
would begin.
Indian village
A typical plains “buffalo culture” village could consist of a few dozen to
300 lodges, or tipis. No streets were laid out so each family pitched their
tipi where they chose. The tipis were white, made of buffalo hides stitched
together. The tops were gray from smoke exiting the smoke hole. There was no
order to the arrangement, but each encampment was necessarily near water and
grass for the horses. They were usually in valleys not easily seen from a
distance. Around each tipi was strewn the necessities of existence, usually
including drying racks for meat, weapons leaned against the tipi, buffalo
hides staked on the ground for scraping, buffalo hides stretched on wooden
frames for softening, assorted wolf-like partly wild dogs for protection and
food, naked young children, women working in small groups, and boys racing,
wrestling, target practicing with arrows or guarding the horses.
Hiring Jacob to clerk
In the 1800’s if a boy could do a man’s work he would be hired. Kit Carson
was 16 years old when he ran away from his apprenticeship to a saddle maker,
and became a cook for explorers heading for Taos, New Mexico. Jacob had some
education, and Mr. Breckenridge could see from experience that he had
character and determination. Those qualities would have made him a valuable
employee. Only a few years later the same principle applied to the daring
riders of the Pony Express, who needed to be light in weight, were usually
boys. The same thing can be said of the “cowboys” who drove the vast herds
of Texas longhorns to railheads for shipment to eastern cities. Many drovers
were only boys.